An Overview of Ancient Cypriot Pottery Vessels: From the Early Bronze to the Late Archaic Periods

Ceramic Vessels in Ancient Cyprus

Ancient Cyprus, often perceived through the lens of its relationships with great civilizations like Greece, holds a rich and distinctive cultural identity all its own. Far from being a mere extension of Greek influence, the island's history and culture are uniquely Cypriot, shaped by a complex web of influences from neighboring lands, yet always retaining its own character.

The island's ceramic artistry stands as a vibrant testament to this singular identity. From the early Bronze Age through the late Iron Age, Cypriot pottery is immediately recognizable for its distinctive forms, patterns, decorations, materials, and colors. Each piece, a harmonious blend of these elements, showcases the uniqueness of Cypriot craftsmanship.

My fascination with ancient Cypriot pottery sparked my interest in the island's history. Handling these ancient vessels feels like reaching across time to connect with the artisans of yesteryears, providing a tangible link to the past.

Much like Desmond Morris, we break down the pottery into shapes and types. Not all shapes are present in all types and vice versa. This scheme is not the perfect way to classify Cypriot pottery, and it is not universally adopted, but is my preferred way of classifying various wares.

The Shapes of Ancient Cypriot Pottery

While the naming conventions for Cypriot pottery often borrow from Attic (Greek) terminology, such parallels can be misleading. Names like "Oinochoe" reflect the vessel's function in Greek culture—derived from words for "wine" and "pour"—but may not accurately represent the uses of their Cypriot counterparts.

To navigate this complexity, we'll adopt the classification system proposed by Desmond Morris. His approach, prioritizing simplicity and elegance, deviates from traditional Greek names to offer a clearer understanding of Cypriot pottery's diversity. Although Morris's methodology is unique and not universally adopted, it provides a valuable framework for appreciating the wide range of shapes found in Cypriot ceramics, acknowledging Greek influences while highlighting the distinctiveness of Cypriot pottery.

The simple shapes described by Desmond Morris were the:

• Jug: One-handled vessel with a neck (Includes juglets, Oinochoe, tankard and pitchers)
• Bottle: Narrow-necked vessel with no handles or two handles
• Flask: Sideways-flattened vessel
• Jar: Symmetrical vessel with wide neck (Such as amphoras, beakers, urns, pots and vases)
• Bowl: Vessel where the opening is the widest part (Includes the Kylix, cups, dishes, and plates)
• Dish: Flat vessel (plates, platters)
• Dipper: Squat vessel with a tall handle
• Basket: Open-work pottery bowl
• Strainer: Perforated vessel

The most common shapes are the Jug, Bottle, Bowl, Dish, Jar and Flask. Baskets and Strainers are much less common. Not all shapes were made in all types of pottery, for example there are no examples of a Red Lustrous Ware Strainer. We will dive into each of the base shapes, as well as discussing complex variants of these shapes and how they relate to the base ones, such as composite shapes or variants. For complex shapes that do not relate to one of these we will dedicate separate sections.

Jug

The "Jug" shape occupies a central place in the legacy of Cypriot pottery, being present and thriving in every ceramic period in ancient Cyprus' history. Jugs were made in all sizes, from small sub 10cm wares, all the way to extremely large half meter tall or wide vessels. Jugs were also made across every type of pottery, from red slip, polished wares, bichrome, to plain.

When jugs are small, they are often refered to as juglets, these are often under 15cm in height and usually around 10cm tall.

Iron age jugs of a particular shape, as discussed in a later section, are often refered to as Oinochoe drawing parallels to the Greek form. These are also discussed in a dedicated article.

Bronze Age Jugs

During the bronze age, jugs usually had round bases and often had tall distinctive spouts such as [Artefact 1]. These types of jugs were produced in mass for over a thousand years during this period.

The bronze age was filled with interesting complex shapes, largely related to mortuary or other cultural practices, and the jug type was no exception. Jugs had several commonly occuring themes in their complex shapes.

One such theme was to have multiple spouts exiting a single body as in [Artefact 2] or in [Artefact 3]. These spouts often were still both attached to a single handle, the base of this handle being attached to the body with its head being attached to both spouts in one single piece.

Another prevalent type of complex shape was the two joined jugs such as in [Artefact 5]. In the case of Base Ring Ware the handles similarly were attached to the body in a single piece, however the tip was attached quite high up, creating an interesting sharp shape with an excessively long handle. In the two joined jug shape, the jugs had some clear individuality, while identical they were only attached in a superficial manner in the center of their body and at their opening circular spout. To further accent this individuality, the base of the handle split shortly before connecting to each body.

Alternative composite shapes were also present during the Bronze Age such as [Artefact 4].

Iron Age Jugs

The Iron Age of Cyprus is generally not seen as a period of great innovation in terms of shapes. The widespread use of the potters wheel, and mass export and production of pottery resulted in a range of standardised pottery shapes. Variation within these shapes was restricted to playful configurations of dimensions of the various components that make up a jug.

The "normal" configuration would be a neck roughly a fifth or sixth the size of the body, with a spout about a quarter of the height of the neck. The base would be almost invisible, only a few millimeters tall and flat at the bottom allowing the jugs to be placed on surfaces around the home.

Some of the common themes among varying jug shapes was playing with the ratio of the body, neck and mouth - with some bodies being bulbous with a small head and almost no neck, such as [Artefact 7], looking almost like a ball with a small spout. The opposite was also true, with some jugs having elongated necks and a small body such as [Artefact 6]. Some jugs had elongated more defined bases.

Few configurations depart from the rules of the jug shape, one such configuration that is commonly seen is called the barrel shaped jug. This shape has similar dimensional ratios as other jugs, but with a non-spherical base. The base is instead stretched almost as if pulled by its edges such as in [Artefact 8, 9 & 10].

During the latter half of the Iron Age, the cypro-archaic, free field art emerged as a new style of decoration as seen in [Artefact 10], where rather than being constrained by geometric patterns or incisions that are difficult to mould into complex patterns, the potters used fine slip to "paint" free field scenes onto the pottery itself. These scenes often involved animals such as birds, deer, and bulls, or human figures. The article on free field art goes into this further, as we will focus primarily on shapes and types of pottery in this article.

Bottle

Flask

Flasks in ancient Cypriot pottery were characterized by their sideways-flattened shape, which distinguished them from other vessel types. These unique vessels likely served specialized functions, such as holding perfumes or oils.

Jar

Bowl

Since the pre-ceramic era ([Artefact 14]) to the modern age, bowls have been present in almost every single culture. They are a fundamental and natural shape for a vessel designed to hold liquids and solids. It is of no surprise that ancient Cyprus is no exception, with Bowls existing from the earliest ceramic periods to the present.

Bowls were made in many types, sizes and shapes. Some of these variations are purely due to the passing of time and changing of pottery fashion and culture, while other variations relate to the bowls use.

Where the Bowl and the dish meet is in the depth of the vessel - a dish being essentially a very shallow bowl. Though it is clear that bowls and dishes were made in different ways and decorated in their own unique styles.

Bronze Age Bowls

When one mentions Bronze Age Cypriot bowls, a few types immediately spring to mind, the beautifully designed white slip bowls such as Artefact 15. These white slip

Iron Age Bowls

Dish

Dipper

Basket

Strainer

Types of Ancient Cypriot Pottery

Ceramics have been made in Cyprus for thousands of years. Our interest lies in the periods between the Early Bronze Age to the late Iron Age. This period includes dozens, depending on how they are subdivided, relatively distinct approaches to making pottery. Some of these distinctions may be small in terms of manufacturing process, but yield differently looking products, while others are more distinct in terms of the materials or approaches used.

Much of Cyprus' Bronze Age pottery was handmade, whereas Iron Age pottery was almost exclusively wheel made. This alone causes a massive difference in terms of limitations or freedoms provided to the potter. Furthermore, the type of clay, slip, quality of kiln, or even just cultural fashion resulted in many different types of pottery.

Much as in the section on shapes, Desmond Morris' approach to classifying these styles is not only elegant but also the contemporary approach to classifying Cypriot pottery.

Red Polished Ware

Mottled Red Polished Ware

Black-Topped Red Polished Ware

Red-and-Black Polished Ware

Black-Bottomed Red Polished Ware

Reserved Slip Ware

Black Polished Ware

Black Slip Ware

Drab Polished Ware

Handmade White Painted Ware

Base Ring Ware

Cypro-Mycenaean Ware

White Slip Ware

Few ceramic styles are as iconic and informative as White Slip Ware. Spanning nearly four centuries, from the 16th to the 12th century BCE, this distinctive pottery style not only showcases the artistic prowess of ancient Cypriot craftsmen but also serves as a valuable tool for understanding the island's chronology, trade networks, and cultural interactions during the Late Bronze Age.

The story of White Slip begins with its precursor, Proto White Slip, which emerged in the Middle Cypriot III period (Artefact 16). Proto White Slip is characterized by its use of circles rather than dots in its designs, setting it apart from the later White Slip I (WS I) style. Archaeologists have identified two phases in Proto White Slip development: Phase 1, with strong links to the White Painted tradition of northwestern Cyprus, and the more prolific Phase 2, which defines the start of the Late Cypriot IA:1 (1590 - 1550 BCE) period.

Proto White Slip has been discovered at various sites across Cyprus, such as Pendayia, Stephania, and Toumba tou Skourou. Interestingly, it has also been found in Egypt at Tell el-Dab'a, Canaan at Megiddo and Tell el-'Ajjul, and even as far as Miletus, demonstrating Cyprus's early trade connections.

As Cyprus transitioned into the Late Cypriot IA:2 period (1550 - 1480 BCE), Proto White Slip gave way to the more refined White Slip I (WS I). WS I is distinguished by its use of dots instead of circles and the introduction of new decorative motifs. Archaeologists have identified several WS I subgroups based on their distinctive rim motifs, such as the Rope Lattice, Ladder Band, Double Line Framed, and Parallel Line groups.

One of the most famous examples of WS I is the "Rope Lattice" bowl discovered at Akrotiri on the Greek island of Thera. This find has been at the center of a heated debate regarding the absolute dating of the eruption of Thera and its implications for Eastern Mediterranean chronology.

WS I has been found at numerous sites in Cyprus, such as Enkomi, Toumba tou Skourou, and Ayia Irini, as well as in the Aegean at Thera and Knossos, in Canaan at Tell el-'Ajjul, and in Egypt at Tell el-Dab'a. These discoveries highlight the extensive trade networks and cultural exchanges between Cyprus and its neighbors during the Late Bronze Age.

The Late Cypriot IB period, roughly corresponding to the reign of Thutmose III in Egypt, saw the emergence of White Slip II (WS II). This new style, characterized by its "Ladder Lattice" motif, represents the pinnacle of White Slip production in terms of both quantity and geographical distribution.

WS II has been found in abundance across Cyprus, with major production centers identified at Sanidha and Kalavasos Ayios Dhimitrios in the Vasilikos Valley. The style reached its zenith during the Late Cypriot IIA-B periods (1410 - 1340), with the "Ladder Lattice Dotted Row" (LLDR) and "Ladder Lattice Hooked Chain" (LLHC) motifs being particularly popular.

The widespread distribution of WS II, with examples found as far afield as Sicily, Libya, the Aegean, the Levant, Canaan, Egypt, and Anatolia, attests to Cyprus's role as a major player in the Eastern Mediterranean trade networks of the time. The sheer quantity and quality of WS II exports also suggest a high level of organization and standardization in Cypriot ceramic production.

Despite its success, WS II began to decline in quality and popularity during the 13th century BCE. This decline can be attributed to several factors, including increased competition from imported Mycenaean wares and changes in dining habits among the Cypriot elite.

The final phase of White Slip, sometimes referred to as White Slip III or White Slip II Late, is characterized by a marked deterioration in the quality of the fabric and decoration. These late examples, often featuring simplified "Parallel Line" motifs on a dark, coarse fabric, have been found at sites such as Enkomi, Maroni Vournes, and Pyla-Kokkinokremos.

By the end of the Late Cypriot IIC period, around the middle of the 12th century BCE, White Slip had all but disappeared, replaced by locally produced Mycenaean-style pottery. This change in ceramic preferences coincided with the arrival of new immigrants to Cyprus and the broader cultural and political upheavals that marked the end of the Bronze Age in the Eastern Mediterranean.

Wheelmade Red Lustrous Ware

Red Lustrous Ware stands out as a unique and remarkable style of pottery, it was produced during the Late Bronze Age, approximately from 1500 to 1200 BC. This pottery first emerged in the archaeological record around 1550 BC, marking its presence until the Bronze Age collapse near 1100 BC. Its longevity and widespread distribution underscore its significance in the ancient Cyprus.

Production Methods & Distribution

Originating from Cyprus, Red Lustrous Ware is synonymous with the island's skilled potters and the growing technical advancement of ceramic production during the late Bronze Age. This ware was saught after by Cyprus' neighbors, seeing export across the Levant and Anatolia [2]. While Red Lustrous Ware was found across the eastern Mediterranean, it was not a common style of pottery: Eriksson [4] documents only 1173 pieces. In Kalavassos it comprises about 0.7% of the pottery found [5].

Made on the wheel from exceptionally fine clay, with some variants utilizing coarser materials, Red Lustrous Ware is easily recognizable by its vibrant red hue permeating the clay [2]. The pottery's surface, treated with a self-slip and meticulously burnished, results in an almost glazed like appearance [3]. These characteristics not only highlight the aesthetic appeal of Red Lustrous Ware but also reflect the advanced techniques employed by Cyprus' potters of the period. It is likely that Red Lustrous Ware was a luxury item, it is often found in tombs and burials, but comprises such a small proportion of vessels found. Red Lustrous Wares were kiln fired at between 900 and 1000 degrees C. The consistency of the fabric across many examples of Red Lustrous Wares hint at a single source of production, however no specific Kiln has been identified.

Shapes & Use

There are three main forms that Red Lustrous Ware takes: flasks, arm-shaped vessels and most commonly and famously the spindle bottles. The arm shaped vessels, such as [Artefact 12] are a yet unexplained shape, it is not clear what their use was and their rarity hinders the potential for study. Some theories include incense burners, however no burning marks are present. As is often the case when a shape is not yet understood, many have theorized that they were religious or ritualistic in nature.

Spindle Bottles had internal volumes of between 0.3 and 3 liters, with an average of just under a liter, Flasks had slightly less than this. As with much of Cypriot pottery, some very large examples of these shapes have been found with internal volumes of around 6L, these are however rare and the exception.

Flasks and spindle bottles were clearly created to contain some form of liquid, their spout being too small to hold anything but the finest of solids. These liquids would also likely not have been very thick, making products such as animal fats highly unlikely. What these liquid might have been has been up to debate since the 1890s, though early scholars often made the case that due to their standardised shape, single source of production and almost identical appearance, a single type of liquid was likely to have been contained within them. Modern evidence suggests otherwise.

Analysis of various fragments and intact bottles and flasks has hinted at them potentially containing vegetable oils, pine resin, wines and castor oil. Beeswax was also found on many vessels, though it is possible that this was used as a sealant rather than content. This raises more questions however, given their wide use across the eastern Mediterranean, were these vessels transported with these original liquids in mind? Or were these later filled locally. It is however clear that Red Lustrous Ware vessels were not used to transport or store a single type of liquid, but rather a variety of products.

White Shaved Ware

Wheelmade White Painted Ware

Bichrome Ware

Bichrome ware is one of the most popular styles seen throughout the Cypriot Iron Age. The name "Bichrome" refers to the two colors of slip used to decorate the pottery. The base color is usually a light beige or cream with reddish brown and black slip used to decorate the pottery. In the early Iron Age these decorations comprised of geometric patterns such as concentric circles, wavy lines, and triangles. As the Iron Age progressed, the decorations became more complex with the introduction of free field art.

Production Methods & Distribution

Bichrome ware is one of the most important Iron Age pottery styles, it saw export across the entire Levant from Syria, Turkey down to Egypt. In Cyprus alone it can be found across most Iron Age sites. It is in fact often used as a chronological market, with its presence helping to date other artefacts found in the same context in sites all around the Levant.

Black on Red Ware

Black on Red Ware, sometimes called Black on Red ware, is an Iron Age style of pottery characterised by the covering of the vessel in red slip, with black slip being applied on top to form decorations.

Bichrome Red Ware

Similar to Black on Red Ware, Bichrome Red Ware is a style characterised by the covering of the vessel in red slip, with bichrome elements (white and black) being used to decorate the pottery. This style is usually only seen in the late Iron Age - the cypro-archaic.

Wheelmade Black Slip Ware

Plain White Ware