A Course on Ancient Cypriot Archeology

Preface

Whether you're a student, a history buff, or simply intrigued by Cyprus's past, this course offers a comprehensive and accessible way into the fascinating world of Cyprus and its archaeological heritage. Our course tries to bridge the gap between the casual reader and scholarly works, while offering a breadth of important and interesting topics.

Our aim is to guide you through the history of Cyprus, from its pre-human landscapes all the way to its archaic period.

Note this course is not meant to be read end-to-end, however some sections do depend on others. For example if you are reading a bronze age pottery section, there may be assumptions that the reader roughly knows what bronze age cyprus was. There is usually an effort to introduce the knowledge required within articles to make them self-contained.

While each section will link to various internal resources, we also make an effort to provide external material and references to help you further your learning.

We welcome your feedback and suggestions to enhance this learning experience.

History, Chronology & Context

The archaeolical chronology of Cyprus aligns broadly with the wider Levant and Near East regions, unfolding in distinct periods:

These periods often have further subdivisions such as the aceramic or ceramic phases of the Neolithic, or early to late stages in the Bronze Age. While the periodization aligns with the broader Levantine context, the specific dates and transitions, like that from the Chalcolithic to the Bronze Age, often vary and are subject to debate.

It's essential to recognize that these transitions were gradual and their precise timings are rarely well known. For example, the end of the Bronze Age, marked by identifiable disasters, can be more accurately pinpointed than that of the Chalcolithic.

Pre-Hominid Cyprus: The Paleolithic

The Paleolithic era, a vast chapter in the story of Earth, traces humanity's journey from simple stone tool usage to the brink of agricultural revolution. For Cyprus, this journey is a tale untold by human presence, focusing mainly on the Late Upper Paleolithic period. Despite the era's close association with the strides of early humans, the island remained untouched by hominids due to its isolation.

Contrary to its contemporary arid climate, the Cyprus of the Paleolithic age was rather idyllic. Imagine vast, lush woodlands reaching from the heights of the Troodos mountains down to the coasts. Rivers cutting through this green expanse, nourishing everything in their path.

Isolation crafted Cyprus into an ecological haven, the absence of large predators on the island paved the way for a remarkable cast of characters. Among them were the pygmy hippos and elephants standing less than a meter tall. These creatures roamed a Cyprus unmarked by hominids, thriving in a rare ecosystem that allowed for their existence.

Evidence of Paleolithic Hominid Habitation or Visitation?

The question of human presence in Cyprus during the Paleolithic era ignites considerable debate. The core of this debate centers on whether the island witnessed transient human visits before the well-documented Neolithic seafaring expeditions. Unearthing evidence to support Paleolithic habitation or visitation is inherently challenging. Artefacts such as small, often undateable flint pieces have been discovered at various sites. These findings lead some researchers to speculate about a Paleolithic origin, but the current evidence remains inconclusive and does not definitively support such a claim.

The possibility of Paleolithic maritime travel to Cyprus is not far-fetched, given existing evidence of sea voyages during this period, such as those to Crete [1, 2]. However, whether these journeys extended to Cyprus remains a subject of speculation. If Paleolithic humans did visit the island, they left no substantial or lasting impact on the ecosystem that we can discern today. This part of Cypriot history, shrouded in mystery, continues to challenge and intrigue archaeologists and historians alike.

Furthermore, at least in the very short term, it is clear that the arrival of large groups of humans would have been preceded by small parties to scout the suitability of the island for more permanent habitation [3]. Nevertheless, let's forget about hominids for a while and dive into what Cyprus was like prior to our arrival.

The Arrival of Sea Faring Humans

The leap from coastal navigation to open-sea voyaging required significant advancements in boat-building and navigation skills. The Mediterranean, with its challenging currents and winds, served as both a barrier and a pathway for these ancient explorers. The discovery of seafaring technologies in the Paleolithic context points to a remarkable human capacity for innovation and adaptation. Furthermore, even if humans had the knowledge and skills to navigate the sea, what pressures or reasons would cause them to do so?

However, before diving deeper, we now have arrived to your first venture beyond this page. The following article will guide you through the discovery, arrival and subsequent impact of the first humans to reach Cyprus: READ HERE. Once done, you can return here to continue your journey.

Aceramic Neolithic

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Ceramic Neolithic

We now arrive at a pivotal moment in the island's history: the Ceramic Neolithic period (c. 5500-4000 BCE). This era marked a significant shift in the lives of the island's inhabitants, as the emergence of pottery revolutionized the way they stored, prepared, and consumed food and drink.

The transition from the Aceramic Neolithic to the Ceramic Neolithic was a gradual one, with no evidence of natural or man-made disasters catalyzing the change. Life continued much as it had before, with humans coexisting with domesticated cats and maintaining their established ways of life. However, the introduction of pottery production slowly began to transform Cypriot society [18].

The exact timeline of the emergence of ceramics in Cyprus is not clear-cut, as archaeologists must rely on the dating of organic materials, such as charcoal, and other evidence indicative of rudimentary pottery production. Radiocarbon dating, while a valuable tool, is not a magic solution and comes with its own set of challenges and limitations.

One of the most striking aspects of Cypriot Neolithic pottery is the clear distinction between two main ware types: Coarse Ware (CW) and painted wares, which include Red-on-White (RW), Combed (Cb), Painted-and-Combed (PCb), and Red Monochrome Painted (RMP). CW, characterized by its coarse, low-fired fabric and organic temper, was primarily used for large, circular, flanged-based trays with U-shaped openings. These trays required considerable skill to produce and fire successfully, despite their seemingly simple appearance.

In contrast, the painted wares were made using clay rich in calcareous content, resulting in lighter hues after firing. This deliberate choice of raw material facilitated the application of painted and combed surface treatments, creating a striking contrast between the decorative patterns and the lighter background.

Petrographic analyses have revealed that while CW and Monochrome Burnished Ware (MBW) were consistently made using pure clay pastes, the painted wares were produced using calcareous pastes, mainly marls [18]. This island-wide understanding of the deliberate choice of raw materials for specific ware types suggests a shared technological tradition and cultural practice among the Neolithic communities of Cyprus.

However, regional variations in pottery production have been identified, supporting the idea of distinct "northern" and "southern" groups on the island during the Ceramic Neolithic. These localized differences in production practices may have embodied unique identities within the broader shared Cypriot tradition.

The Ceramic Neolithic settlements were typically comprised of small, single-room structures rather than larger, structured towns or cities. As the period progressed, larger structures began to emerge, hinting at the gradual evolution of Cypriot society.

The emergence of pottery in Cyprus during the Ceramic Neolithic had far-reaching implications for the island's social structure and cultural identity. The technological homogeneity reflected in pottery production may have embodied an island-wide cohesive group identity, expressed through shared practices and ways of doing things. At the same time, regional variations in production habits point to the existence of more localized identities within this broader cultural framework.

As we continue to explore the fascinating world of ancient Cyprus, the Ceramic Neolithic period stands out as a time of significant change and innovation. The emergence of pottery not only transformed the daily lives of the island's inhabitants but also provided a window into their social structures, cultural identities, and inter-regional interactions. With each new discovery, our understanding of this pivotal period in Cypriot prehistory deepens, shedding light on the rich tapestry of the island's ancient past.

Early to Middle Chalcolithic Cyprus

The transition from Ceramic Neolithic to Early Chalcolithic saw rapid abandonment and fissioning of settlements [5]. Factors contributing to the fissioning of settlements are not well understood [6]. The early to middle Chalcolithic period lasted from circa 4000 BC to around 2700 BC.

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Late Chalcolithic Cyprus

[13] discussion here on the chalcolithic settlement

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Bronze Age Cyprus

The Bronze Age marks a pivotal chapter in Cyprus's history, offering important insights into the island's later evolution. This era stands out for its wealth of information on various aspects such as architecture, diet, social organization, and trade. It's also a period marked by complexity and is full of unresolved scholarly debates.

During the Bronze Age in Cyprus, there was a notable emergence of new technologies and social practices. Innovations like new tools, the introduction of cattle, advancements in textiles, and shifts in architectural styles were prominent. Cultural aspects, notably in burial rituals and pottery, also underwent significant changes. This era was characterized by the rise and fall of several major settlements across the island, each with its distinctive features.

The rapid pace of these transformations has been a topic of considerable debate. Some scholars suggest that this rapid change was due to external colonization or migration. In contrast, others believe it was driven by the external demand for local resources like copper and ceramics, spurring faster development.

Bronze Age Chronology

The Cypriot Bronze Age is long and complex. Many chronologies have been proposed, some as simple as defining an early, middle and late Bronze Age. However the following chronology is often used in the literature:

Note that the Philia period overlaps with the Chalcolithic, and that the Late Cypriot III is sometimes said to end around 1100, with major changes in pottery being observed around 1050 BC heralding the Cypro-Geometric period.

Hybridisation of Cypriot Culture

For centuries, Cyprus served as a pivotal hub of trade and cultural exchange in the eastern Mediterranean [7]. Positioned at the crossroads between the Aegean, Near East, and Egypt, this island witnessed a dynamic intermingling of peoples, ideas, and material culture throughout the Bronze Age. Nowhere is this vibrant fusion more evident than in the archaeological record of Cyprus during the 12th and 11th centuries BCE, a tumultuous period marked by the collapse of once-powerful civilizations and the movement of various groups across the region.

Recent research has shed new light on the complex social and cultural processes that unfolded on Cyprus during this transformative era. Rather than viewing the influx of Aegean-style artifacts and practices as evidence for a wholesale colonization by "Mycenaean" Greeks, as was once commonly believed, archaeologists now recognize a more nuanced picture of cultural negotiation and hybridization between locals and immigrants.

The material culture of Late Cypriot society, from ceramics to metalwork to religious iconography, reflects a creative blending of indigenous traditions with influences from the Aegean, Anatolia, the Levant, and beyond. Potters on the island adapted popular Mycenaean forms like stirrup jars and kraters to local styles and techniques, resulting in distinctive hybrid wares. Similarly, metalsmiths drew upon a wide array of regional motifs and technologies to craft elaborate bronze stands, decorated with scenes of hunters, chariots, and mythical beasts that defy easy categorization.

Even quintessentially "Cypriot" artistic traditions, such as the plank-shaped terracotta figures that appear suddenly in 12th century BCE graves, betray a deeper entanglement with surrounding cultures. Some of these so-called "goddesses with upraised arms" find close parallels in Aegean and Levantine divine imagery, hinting at shared religious concepts that were nonetheless uniquely expressed by local artisans.

The mixing of tastes and ideas is equally apparent in Cypriot funerary customs and settlement architecture. Chamber tombs with dromos entrances, once seen as a hallmark of Mycenaean presence, are now understood as part of an island-wide shift in burial practices that incorporated elements from multiple cultural spheres. Innovations like ashlar masonry and rectilinear town planning, too, reflect a cosmopolitan atmosphere in which Cypriot builders freely adapted cutting-edge techniques from their neighbors to suit local needs and sensibilities.

What emerges from this archaeological picture is not a unilateral imposition of "Aegean" culture, but rather an organic process of creative synthesis by an increasingly mobile, interconnected Cypriot society. Immigrants from the Aegean world were just one of many groups, including Anatolians, Levantines, and Egyptians, who contributed to the vibrant cultural milieu of the island in the 12th-11th centuries BCE. Through intermarriage, trade, and other social interactions, these diverse peoples actively reshaped Cypriot art, religion, and ways of life in a manner that defies simplistic models of colonialism or invasion.

Indeed, by the end of the 11th century BCE, a new, distinctively Cypriot cultural identity had crystalized - one forged through the dynamic interplay and fusion of manifold traditions. This process of hybridization laid the foundations for the resilient, outward-looking society that would later blossom into the celebrated city-kingdoms of the Iron Age.

Bronze Age Architecture

The architecture and settlement design of the early Bronze Age was quite different to that of the Neolithic and Chalcolithic; instead of singular huts and round houses the bronze age introduced multi-roomed rectilinear houses that were significantly larger and represented a cultural shift in living norms [12].

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Economy, Trade & Political Structure

The Bronze Age brought significant transformations in Cyprus, primarily driven by its burgeoning economy. The heart of the island's industrial sector thrived on the extensive mining of copper [14], abundant and accessible in the Troodos Massif's foothills.

Cyprus stood out for its rich copper reserves, scattered across various locations, each paving the way to different coastal export hubs. The landscape between these copper-rich areas and the coastline was dotted with fertile lands, ripe for agricultural development. Furthermore, the island attracted numerous trading partners eager for its copper, underscoring the high demand for this resource.

It is tempting to think of Cyprus as a single political identity ruling ove the island and its resources, but the reality is that the unique geography of the island led to a large number of decentralised territories with a segmented political model. There likely existed some form of central authorities ruling over a small number of settlements, but there is no clear evidence as to which settlements these might have been.

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Mortuary Practices

Understanding how different cultures approach death can reveal much about their beliefs, customs, and what they value most. Questions such as how the deceased are treated, whether they are buried or not, what items they are buried with, and where their final resting place is - within homes, outside, or in designated graveyards like today - can provide deep insights into the society of Bronze Age Cyprus.

During the Bronze Age, there was a noticeable change in burial practices in Cyprus. Most people were buried in formal cemeteries located near their settlements. However, it's important to note that intra-mural burials did occur, but these were less common in the early Bronze Age [8]. Cemeteries and their graves have been crucial for archaeologists, yielding a large number of artifacts, some discovered through excavation and others through less official means. Notable examples of early Bronze Age cemeteries include Sotira Kaminoudhia [9] and Alambra Mouttes [10]. It is important and saddening to note that graves were commonly looted, with complete destruction of the sites ruining any chance at archeological analysis.

It is important to remember that mortuary practices are a ceremony performed by the living to honor the dead. In Bronze Age Cyprus, these practices often involved multiple phases of treatment for the deceased. The initial phase usually focused on the individual, with primary burials in pit or chamber tombs. This was followed by a transitional period where the flesh decomposed, allowing for a symbolic separation between the living and the dead. Finally, secondary treatment involved exhumation, possible rearrangement of bones, and reburial, sometimes collectively with other individuals.

The use of extramural cemeteries with rock-cut tombs became widespread during this period. Tombs were frequently reused for multiple burials over time, with earlier remains often being moved aside to make room. Some tombs featured elaborate architectural elements like carved facades, pillars, and niches, transforming them into shrines for the venerated ancestors. Offerings and sacrifices likely took place at the tombs as well.

Grave goods played an important role in Bronze Age Cypriot burials. The deceased were buried with a variety of items including pottery, copper-based tools and weapons, ornaments, and animal remains. Ceremonial vessels with elaborate decoration or zoomorphic features have been found in many wealthy tombs. The inclusion of these goods not only equipped the dead for the afterlife but also served to display the status and prestige of the deceased and their kin.

As time progressed, mortuary rituals grew more complex and ostentatious, especially among the upper echelons of society. Richer tombs featured greater quantities and varieties of grave goods. Copper items in particular seem to have been a key status symbol, with the most elaborate assemblages containing numerous tools, weapons, and ornaments. Some weapons reached impractical sizes, becoming ceremonial.

Interestingly, the richest cemeteries with the most copper goods were often located far from the copper-producing regions of Cyprus, attesting to the effectiveness of exchange networks. Imported valuables from the Near East and Egypt also began appearing more frequently in the later Bronze Age [11].

Ultimately, the mortuary record reveals an increasingly stratified but still fluid social structure in prehistoric Bronze Age Cyprus. Elites had not yet solidified institutionalized control, so status had to be repeatedly negotiated through competitive displays of wealth and ritual. By consuming copper and other valuables in burials and funerary ceremonies, leading families stimulated demand, driving the intensified production that paved the way for Late Bronze Age urbanism and economic transformation. The story of how the Cypriots buried and commemorated their dead is thus deeply interwoven with the broader arc of social change on the island.

Late Bronze Age Cyprus: A Thriving Hub of Trade, Industry and Culture

The Late Bronze Age, spanning from around 1550 to 1050 BCE, was a dynamic and prosperous period in the history of Cyprus. During this era, the island underwent significant changes and developments that transformed it into a flourishing center of trade, copper production, and cultural exchange in the eastern Mediterranean.

One of the most striking aspects of Late Bronze Age Cyprus was the dramatic shift in settlement patterns. In contrast to the preceding periods, when large areas of the island remained uninhabited, the Late Bronze Age saw a substantial increase in population and the expansion of settlements across Cyprus. This growth was particularly evident in the coastal regions between Cape Pyla and Cape Kiti, where numerous towns and villages were established or greatly expanded.

The move towards coastal settlement was driven by a newfound confidence and optimism, as the old fears that had previously confined people to inland areas dissipated. The most prosperous and influential sites of the Late Bronze Age were primarily located along the south coast, with a notable concentration surrounding Larnaka Bay. Here, the sheltered harbors of Hala Sultan Tekke and Kition (modern-day Larnaka) served as thriving hubs for maritime trade.

Behind the prosperity of these coastal towns lay the successful management of Cyprus' most valuable commodity: copper. The island was renowned for its rich copper deposits, and the Late Bronze Age saw a significant intensification of mining and smelting activities. Settlements such as Katydata, Akhera, Lythrodondas, and Kalavassos were strategically located near copper sources, providing the raw materials that fueled the island's economy.

The copper industry was intricately linked to the island's internal trade network. Ore and smelted copper were transported from the mining centers to the coastal manufacturing towns via a complex system of routes. The most prosperous inland sites, such as Nicosia and Ayios Sozomenos, were situated along these vital trade arteries, acting as intermediaries in the flow of goods.

In addition to copper, Cyprus also boasted a thriving agricultural sector. The expansion of rural settlements into previously uninhabited areas, such as the Kormakiti peninsula, suggests a conscious agrarian policy aimed at meeting the growing demands of the island's urban centers. This agricultural growth likely supported the increasing population engaged in urban trades and crafts.

The Late Bronze Age also marked a significant shift in Cyprus' external relations, particularly with the Aegean world. While the island had maintained strong ties with the Levant and Egypt throughout the period, its interaction with the Aegean was initially limited. However, around 1450-1400 BCE, Mycenaean pottery began to appear in modest but notable quantities across Cyprus, signaling the beginning of a new era of cultural exchange.

The influx of Mycenaean pottery intensified dramatically during the 14th and early 13th centuries BCE, with enormous quantities found in the cemeteries of Cyprus. This abundance of Mycenaean goods led some scholars to propose the establishment of Greek colonies on the island during this time. However, recent archaeological evidence suggests that the pottery was primarily imported through regular trade rather than produced by resident Greek craftsmen.

The presence of Mycenaean merchants in Cyprus was part of a broader trading network that extended from the Levant to Egypt. These merchants were drawn to the island's strategic ports, which served as both markets and operational bases for their commercial activities. In return for their distinctive painted pottery and other commodities, the Mycenaeans likely acquired Cypriot copper, which was crucial to their own economy.

Bronze Age Pottery

The Bronze Age lasted for a significant period of time, and saw the emergency of multiple new styles of pottery. It is one of the most creative and beautiful periods of Cypriot ceramic development. Pottery also played an important role in social practices such as mortuary rituals. Therefore it is given its own large subsection.

The most famous Bronze Age pottery type is the Red Polished Ware of which there were several styles and shapes.

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The late bronze age saw the introduction of the beautiful white slip pottery such as the Tankard pictured here.

Figurines

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The Bronze Age Collapse

Around 1200 BC states and polities from the Eastern Mediterranean and Near East suffered rapid declines and collapses [15]. The Myceaneans, Hittites, Egyptians, Assyrians and the Levant all suffered to different extents during this short period.

The Bronze Age collapse is attributable to a variety of interconnected factors, however war and invasion from the mysterious Sea Peoples [16] is often cited as a major factor. Early scholarly works suggested that Cyprus may also have suffered direct enemy action from the Sea Peoples, however this is now considered unlikely.

Cyprus most likely suffered a rapid decline in demand for goods such as copper and ceramics due to the collapse of major trading partners [17]. This would have affected the island's economy and likely led to a decline in the standard of living for the island's inhabitants. Due to the segmented political model of Cyprus, various settlements would have been affected to different extents.

Sites of the period had different uses, such as larger scale storage of goods or mining facilities, with some being abandoned and others repurposed. One such site is Kalavassos, which was abandoned peacefully with no signs of violence. While many sites do show signs of having suffered fires, it cannot be assumed that the fires led to their abandonment as there is evidence of a gradual removal of quality goods from the sites.

The collapse of regional polities resulted in the collapse of their economy and often the abandonment of their settlements.

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The Surviving Settlements

Like in any economical collapse, not all fair equally. Some settlements profited from the collapse of others, with some not fully collapsing but suffering a decline in quality of life.

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Iron Age Cyprus

It is tempting to think of the Iron Age as the rebirth of Cyprus after the Bronze Age collapse, however as discussed above, many polities and regions not only survived the collapse but benefited from it.

Note that the Cypriot Iron Age is difficult to study, while the Bronze Age provides us with a wealth of archeological evidence, most of it comes from abandonned settlements and burial sites. The Iron Age saw no large scale site abandonment, with site reuse over hundreds of years destroying prior archeological material. Even when material is present, attributing it to a specific period is extremely difficult. Furthermore, the 19th century saw a large number of looters destroying evidence of Iron Age sites, as these were far easier to find than earlier Bronze Age material. This does however hint at an extremely productive and successful political, economical and social period in of Cyprus's history, which lasted for over 500 years.

Cypro-Geometric Cyprus

Oinochoe link

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Cypro-Archaic Cyprus

Free Field Art link

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Learning Resources

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Books

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Papers

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Other Articles!

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