Cyprus and Ugarit - Book Review

Bernard Knapp's "Cyprus and Ugarit: Connecting Material and Mercantile Worlds" [1] offers a comprehensive examination of the relationship between two pivotal polities of the Late Bronze Age (LBA) eastern Mediterranean. Building on decades of the author's engagement with the topic, this work delves into the interplay of material culture, economic systems, and social dynamics that linked the island of Cyprus and the coastal Syrian city-state of Ugarit. Knapp meticulously synthesizes archaeological and documentary evidence to explore not just the connections, but also the evolving power dynamics and distinct trajectories of these influential entities during a transformative period. The book serves as a resource for understanding the intricacies of LBA maritime trade, mercantile practices, and the broader socio-political landscape of the eastern Mediterranean.

Knapp frames his study by engaging with key concepts such as maritime spheres of interaction, the roles of merchants and mercantilism, and the agency of various actors involved in the LBA world. He seeks to move beyond traditional material analyses or purely text-based interpretations, aiming for a more holistic understanding grounded in the rich, albeit sometimes problematic, evidence from both regions. The work acknowledges the inherent challenges, particularly the uneven publication history of Ugarit's excavations and the complexities of interpreting fragmented data, yet successfully navigates these issues to present a nuanced and compelling narrative.

Summary & Structure

The book is structured into eight chapters, moving from background information and shared material traits to specific artifact categories, textual evidence, and finally, a broader discussion and conclusion.

Chapter 1: Introduction sets the stage, outlining the study's objectives and highlighting the need for an integrated approach to understand the Cyprus-Ugarit relationship beyond earlier, sometimes limited, perspectives. Knapp introduces the core themes of material and mercantile connectivity that form the backbone of his analysis.

Chapter 2: Background provides essential context. It reviews previous work, notably the work of Marguerite Yon and Gerald Cadogan, who explored various facets of the Cypro-Ugaritic connection, from pottery and architecture to trade and potential political influences. This chapter then offers concise overviews of both Ugarit and Cyprus during the LBA. Ugarit is presented as a major cosmopolitan hub with a well-defined urban plan, extensive palace sector, multiple archives yielding vast textual data in various languages, and crucial ports like Minet el-Beidha (Ma'hadu) and Ras Ibn Hani. The discussion highlights Ugarit's established role as a commercial center and transshipment point, particularly involving elite merchant families like those of Yabninu, Urtenu, Rap'ānu, and Rašap-Abu, whose archives provide critical insights into trade operations. Cyprus, in contrast, is depicted as a relative newcomer to the wider Mediterranean commercial sphere, though possessing the invaluable resource of copper from the Troodos mountains. The chapter traces Cyprus's development through the Middle and Late Cypriot periods, emphasizing the rise of coastal urban centers (Enkomi, Hala Sultan Tekke, Kition, etc.) driven by intensified copper production and burgeoning international trade networks connecting the island to the Levant, Egypt, Anatolia, and the Aegean. Key social transformations on LBA Cyprus, including urbanization, monumental architecture, new mortuary practices, and the emergence of the Cypro-Minoan script, are also noted. The proximity and strategic importance of Enkomi to Ugarit are particularly emphasized.

Chapter 3: Ugarit and Cyprus: Common Material Features delves into specific archaeological parallels linking the two regions. Knapp examines four key areas:

• Ashlar Masonry: Discussing the sophisticated cut-stone technique, Knapp surveys its appearance on Cyprus (Nitovikla, Enkomi tombs, Kition, Maroni, Kalavasos, Alassa) and Ugarit (palace, elite houses, tombs). He reviews the debates on its origins (Mycenaean, Minoan, Syrian, or local development within a wider koiné) and highlights recent technical studies. While acknowledging multiple influences and local adaptations, the prominence of Syrian parallels, particularly from Ugarit, is noted, suggesting potential influence from Ugaritic architectural traditions on Cypriot counterparts.
• Urban Mortuary Practices: Drawing heavily on P. Keswani's work, this section compares the built tombs, especially ashlar examples, found within the urban landscapes of Enkomi and Ugarit. Similarities in placement (often beneath houses) and construction are discussed, though differences in specific features like corbelling and access are also noted. The chapter also explores parallels in tholos-type tombs, suggesting potential Levantine inspiration for Cypriot examples. Knapp considers the social implications, pondering whether these tombs belonged to expatriate Syrians, emulating Cypriot elites, or perhaps an international merchant class linked by kinship and trade.
• Composite Anchors: The discussion focuses on stone anchors, particularly the three-holed 'composite' type (Frost's classification) or 'planar stone-frame staked anchor' (Votruba's PSFSA). While cautioning against rigidly assigning anchor types to specific cultures, Knapp presents Votruba's argument suggesting the PSFSA type may have been a Cypriot innovation, given its prevalence on the island and the presence of Cypro-Minoan signs on several examples. Notably, outside Cyprus, this anchor type is primarily found at Ugarit and its port, Minet el-Beidha, reinforcing the maritime link. The presence of the different 'pierced stone anchor' (PSA) type at Kition is also discussed, with possible interpretations involving Levantine sailors.
• Cypro-Minoan Script: This section examines the enigmatic, undeciphered script found predominantly on Cyprus and at Ugarit. Knapp outlines its variants (Masson's CM 0-III vs. Palaima's single script theory) and distribution. While Enkomi yielded the most inscriptions, including tablets and cylinders, Ugarit is the only other site with confirmed CM tablets. The Ugaritic CM finds often come from elite contexts, particularly the houses of merchants (Yabninu, Rap'ānu) and officials (Rašap-Abu) with known Cypriot connections. The possibility that some CM tablets found at Ugarit were inscribed locally, while others might have originated on Cyprus as part of administrative or exchange processes, is explored. The presence of the script at Ugarit underscores the intimate cultural and commercial ties.

Chapter 4: Cypriot Material in Ugarit focuses on the reverse flow of goods, cataloging evidence of Cypriot products found at Ugarit and its ports. Knapp begins by acknowledging the significant challenges posed by the publication standards of early excavations under C.F.A. Schaeffer, which often lacked detailed context, quantitative data, and systematic recording, potentially skewing perceptions of ware frequencies. Despite these hurdles, the chapter examines key categories:

• Seals and Seal Impressions: Ugarit has yielded more Cypriot-style cylinder seals than any other Levantine site. Knapp discusses 19 examples (revising Amiet's count), noting both Elaborate and Derivative styles with iconography often drawing on foreign motifs but adapted locally. The seals are found in contexts linked to prominent merchants like Rap'ānu and Rašap-Abu, further suggesting integrated relationships. Cypriot-style seal impressions on administrative documents and labels from Ugarit also point to the involvement of Cypriots or the use of Cypriot administrative practices.
• Metals: Evidence points strongly to Cyprus as the main source of copper utilized or traded through Ugarit. The discovery of an oxhide ingot mould and metallurgical tools (bellows, crucibles, tuyeres) at Ras Ibn Hani is significant. While publication is again incomplete, Knapp compiles evidence for Cypriot metal objects at Ugarit, including oxhide ingot fragments, tools (spatulae, tongs, shovels paralleling Cypriot hoard finds), potential metalworking slag, daggers, axes, and possibly figurines. Finds from the Maison du Grand-Prêtre include Cypriot-style bronze tripods. A silver bowl with a CM inscription, found near this house, is also mentioned. The discussion also touches upon Ugaritic texts referencing copper and tin for producing karkubbûma, potentially bronze wheeled stands for which Cyprus was famous, suggesting local production capability possibly stimulated by Cypriot connections.
• Pottery: This section meticulously compiles references to various Cypriot wares found at Ugarit, Minet el-Beidha, and Ras ibn Hani, while constantly reminding the reader of the publication limitations. Despite the difficulties in quantification, the sheer volume is undeniable (Schaeffer himself noted an "exceptional quantity" ). Knapp references key publications (Ugaritica II, Ugaritica VII, Yon's excavation reports, Monchambert's studies, recent work by Al-Maqdissi, Matoïan, Sauvage, and Lorre) to illustrate the range of wares. Wares include Base-ring, White Slip, Monochrome, White Shaved, Red-on-Black, White Painted styles, Lustrous Wheelmade wares, and Cypriot Bucchero. He also addresses the complexities of "Mycenaean" style pottery found at Ugarit, much of which is now recognized as Cypriot-produced White Painted Wheelmade III (including former Rude/Pastoral styles). Red Lustrous Wheelmade ware, likely Anatolian but found in association, is also noted. Marked pottery (White Shaved, Base-ring) with CM signs further links the finds to Cyprus. Recent detailed publications of early finds, like Sauvage and Lorre (2023), are used to provide more concrete examples from specific contexts (tombs, deposits). The phenomenon of local Ugaritic imitations and "transpositions" (in stone/metal) of Cypriot ceramic forms is also discussed, suggesting deep integration of Cypriot pottery into local life. A quantitative summary table, compiled by Nathan Meyer, tallies 670 identified Cypriot vessels from the reviewed publications, acknowledging this is a minimum estimate.

Chapter 5: Levantine Material in Cyprus reverses the perspective, examining imports from the Levant found on the island. Again, Knapp prefaces the discussion by outlining excavation history issues, this time focusing on Schaeffer's work at Enkomi and the interpretative biases and publication gaps that resulted. He emphasizes the difficulty of distinguishing Ugaritic-specific material from broader Levantine goods.

• Levantine Pottery on Cyprus: The most prominent import is the Canaanite Jar (CJ), the quintessential LBA transport container. Knapp documents around 350 examples from 21 Cypriot sites, ranging from the MC III to LC periods, found in tombs and settlements (Table 2 provides details). Sites with significant quantities include Kalopsidha, Enkomi, Maa Palaeokastro, Pyla Kokkinokremos, Kition Bamboula, and Hala Sultan Tekke. While most CJs are assumed to be Levantine imports (carrying oil, wine, resin, etc.), Knapp discusses petrographic and chemical analyses suggesting some CJs found on Cyprus might have been locally produced, adding complexity to the picture. The presence of post-firing marks, some resembling CM signs, on CJs found on Cyprus is linked to Cypriot involvement in the distribution network. Other Levantine pottery includes Syrian Red and Black Burnished and Plain wares (MC III), Syro-Palestinian juglets, dipper juglets (MC III-LC I), and storage pithoi (LC IIC). The contentious issue of Bichrome ware is addressed, acknowledging the debate over Cypriot vs. Levantine origins but leaning towards primarily Cypriot production pending further analyses. Similarly, Tell el-Yahudiyeh (TEY) ware is discussed, outlining the complex arguments for Egyptian vs. Levantine vs. even Cypriot origins/imitations, concluding that assigning a specific Levantine provenance to Cypriot finds remains difficult.
• Other Levantine Material on Cyprus: Beyond pottery, Knapp highlights other imports indicating Cypro-Levantine interaction from MC III/LC I onwards. This includes distinctive bronze tools and weapons (notched chisel axes, "warrior belts") found in Cypriot "warrior burials," often associated with equid burials, suggesting adoption of Near Eastern symbols of status and power. Luxury goods increase during LC I and especially LC II, found in elite tombs and settlements: Syrian/Babylonian cylinder seals, worked bone and ivory, ostrich eggs, gold jewellery, semi-precious stones, faience ornaments, and glass vessels. Sites like Ayios Iakovos Dhima, Enkomi, Kition, and Hala Sultan Tekke yield significant finds. Elaborately carved ivories (pyxides, mirror standards, gaming boards) from late LC IIC/LC IIIA Enkomi show strong iconographic links to Levantine and Ugaritic elite art (Feldman's "International Style"). A silver bowl with an Ugaritic inscription from Hala Sultan Tekke provides a direct textual link. The likely Levantine origin of raw materials like ivory, with workshop evidence possibly at Kouklia Evreti, is also noted. The chapter concludes by stressing the widespread presence of Levantine imports and Levantine-inspired prestige goods on Cyprus, likely supplemented by perishable goods not visible in the record.

Chapter 6: Cyprus and Ugarit: Documentary Evidence shifts focus to the textual record, primarily from Ugarit's archives, written in Akkadian and Ugaritic cuneiform. Knapp organizes the evidence thematically (Tables 3 and 4 provide detailed text lists):  

• People: Numerous texts list Cypriots (Alty/Aldy) or people with Cypriot affiliations receiving rations (food, wine, oil) or listed in censuses at Ugarit, suggesting a resident Cypriot community involved in various professions (crafts, administration, religion). Ritual texts mentioning the 'chief' ('ulp) or 'god' of Alašiya indicate Cypriot involvement, possibly sometimes viewed with caution, in Ugarit's ceremonial life. A liver model inscription refers to acquiring a young man from the Alašiyan.
• Politics: Akkadian texts illuminate diplomatic and political interactions. Letters reveal direct correspondence between the kings (and officials like the rābiṣu) of Alašiya and Ugarit]. A key letter (RS 94.2475) documents Kušmešuša of Alašiya sending 33 copper ingots as a šulmanu (greeting gift) to Niqmaddu III of Ugarit. Cyprus served as a place of exile for disgraced Ugaritic royalty (two sons of Queen Ahat-Milku). Several dramatic letters from the very end of the LBA detail communications concerning enemy ships (likely the 'Sea Peoples,' including the Šikila) menacing Ugarit, with warnings potentially sent from Cyprus (RSL 1, possibly written on Cypriot clay) and requests for information to Cyprus. These texts reveal close, high-level communication and shared anxieties during the final crisis. The use of kinship terms ('father' for king of Alašiya by king of Ugarit) suggests a possible hierarchical or familial relationship.
• Professions: Texts detail the exchange of goods: horses, ships, provisions, oil, possibly grain and wine moving between the two polities. A text mentions the transshipment of Alašiyan copper via Ugarit to Emar. An Ugaritic letter discusses the potential sale of ships by Ugarit's harbour-master to an Alašiyan merchant, requiring royal approval. An inventory lists cargo (possibly copper) from an Alašiyan ship docked at 'Atlg. Legal documents concerning land transfer at Ugarit, though not mentioning Alašiya directly, bear Cypriot-style seal impressions, hinting at Cypriot involvement in Ugaritic administration or commerce. Letters from the House of Urtenu confirm the circulation of messengers, the stationing of an Ugaritic scribe in Alašiya's court requesting furniture, and communications between the sākinu (prefects) of Ugarit and Alašiya regarding trade matters, including textiles and taxation of Cypriot merchants.

Chapter 7: Material and Mercantile Connectivity in the Late Bronze Age Eastern Mediterranean offers a synthesis and broader interpretation of the evidence. Knapp returns to the concept of merchants and mercantile systems, contrasting the situation at Ugarit with that inferred for Cyprus.

• The Merchants of Ugarit and Cyprus: He reviews the extensive textual evidence for Ugarit's merchants (mkrm/tamkāru), distinguishing between royal commercial agents and independent entrepreneurs, highlighting the central role of elite families (Urtenu, Yabninu, etc.) operating within an 'entrepreneurial sphere'. These merchants handled diverse goods, including Cypriot imports, managed international correspondence, and possessed significant economic and potentially political influence. The discussion explores the state's 'symbiotic' relationship with merchants, suggesting royal investment and taxation but reliance on merchant capital and expertise for maritime ventures. For Cyprus, lacking comparable textual evidence, Knapp argues (drawing on Knapp and Meyer 2023) for the emergence of a sophisticated export economy by LC II, involving both raw materials (copper) and increasingly manufactured goods (pottery, bronzes, textiles). He posits the existence of Cypriot merchants engaged in international networks, potentially operating from structures identified at key coastal sites (Kalavasos, Maroni, Maa, Hala Sultan Tekke, Kition) that could serve as merchant housing or depots.
• Maritime Sphere(s) of Interaction: Knapp revisits the idea of regional interaction spheres, proposing one focused on Cyprus-Ugarit and a broader one encompassing Cyprus, the Levant, southern Anatolia, and potentially Egypt. He discusses the interplay of local cabotage and long-distance directional trade, suggesting both were likely combined, involving ships of varying sizes and capitalization. The Uluburun shipwreck serves as a prime example of the complexity, carrying goods from multiple cultures. Textual evidence from Ugarit underscores the multi-directional nature of trade and the involvement of various polities (Crete, Cilicia, Egypt, Alašiya) and agents. The argument is made that maritime trade was largely driven by merchants and agents from coastal/island polities, with major land-based powers having limited direct control, though Ugarit's mercantile-oriented regime represents a significant case of state involvement.
• Mercantile Worlds: Agents and Actors: This section explores the mechanisms and social dimensions of trade. Knapp discusses Panagiotopoulos's distinction between 'closed' (elite gift exchange) and 'open' (mercantile) networks, suggesting the Cyprus-Ugarit link fits the latter while acknowledging the complexity. He examines 'branding' practices—distinctive features or marks on goods like oxhide ingots, pottery (Base-ring juglets, TSJs), and potmarks (including CM signs)—as ways for producers or merchants to convey information, establish identity, and build relationships within the network. The possibility of a 'brand community' linked by shared consumption or distribution practices is raised. The textual evidence for Cypriot residents and officials at Ugarit, the use of Cypriot seals, and the CM inscriptions are revisited as indicators of deep integration and potentially shared identities among linked mercantile groups. The enigma of the Ras Ibn Hani ingot mould is posed as possibly reflecting complex branding or recycling strategies within a closely connected Cypro-Ugaritic mercantile 'family'. The impact of Cypriot copper entering the market on the wider LBA world system is considered. The consolidation of wealth and social ties through practices like adoption at Ugarit, and the potential reflection of elite mercantile kin groups in the shared ashlar tomb traditions, are brought together to suggest a fluid, international merchant class operating across political boundaries.

Chapter 8: Conclusions succinctly summarizes the book's main arguments. Knapp reiterates the long-standing and vital connections between Cyprus and Ugarit, evident from the MC III period onwards. He emphasizes the role of maritime networks and the knowledge and resources of coastal communities in driving mercantile success. The exchange of goods is presented not just as economic activity but as a process involving cultural redefinition and the creation of social value, embedding objects within new life histories and market conditions. Luxury goods and specific iconographies served as markers of status and facilitated relationships among interconnected elites and merchants across the eastern Mediterranean. Ultimately, Knapp characterizes the Cyprus-Ugarit relationship as a vital commercial linkage between two distinct societies: Ugarit, the established emporium with a deeply ingrained mercantile ethos, and Cyprus, the resource-rich island rapidly innovating and transforming its economy through engagement with the wider world. This interaction, he concludes, was profoundly transformative, particularly for Cyprus.

Critical Evaluation

"Cyprus and Ugarit: Connecting Material and Mercantile Worlds" offers a deeply researched and thoughtfully argued synthesis of a complex and crucial relationship in Bronze Age Mediterranean history. Knapp's decades of expertise are evident throughout, providing a masterful navigation of disparate and often challenging datasets.

Strengths:

• Comprehensive Synthesis: The book's primary strength lies in its successful integration of a vast amount of archaeological and textual evidence from both Cyprus and Ugarit. Knapp draws together material culture studies (pottery, metals, architecture, seals, anchors), epigraphic evidence (Akkadian, Ugaritic, Cypro-Minoan), and broader theoretical concepts related to trade, agency, and interaction.
• Nuanced Interpretations: Knapp avoids simplistic models. He consistently acknowledges the limitations of the evidence, particularly the publication issues surrounding Ugarit and early Enkomi excavations, and the ambiguities in assigning provenance or specific cultural origins to artifacts like anchors or certain pottery styles. His discussion of merchant roles, distinguishing between state agents and entrepreneurs, and exploring the possibility of integrated 'merchant families,' is particularly insightful.
• Incorporation of Recent Data: The study effectively incorporates recent textual finds, especially from the House of Urtenu archive at Ugarit, which significantly enrich our understanding of Cypro-Ugaritic interactions at the highest levels. Recent archaeological work and analytical studies on Cyprus are also well-integrated.
• Focus on Connectivity and Agency: The book successfully moves beyond simple inventories of imports/exports to explore the mechanisms, motivations, and social implications of connectivity. The concepts of maritime spheres, branding, and the potential formation of transnational elite/merchant identities are explored productively.
• Clear Structure and Argumentation: Despite the complexity of the material, the book is well-organized, progressing logically from background to specific evidence and then to synthesis. The central argument regarding the vital but distinct nature of the two polities and the transformative impact of their interaction is clearly articulated and well-supported.

Limitations/Points for Consideration:

• Inherent Data Constraints: As Knapp forthrightly admits, the study is inevitably constrained by the nature of the available data. The lack of comparable textual archives from Cyprus means the perspective is heavily weighted towards Ugarit's records. Archaeological data, especially from older excavations, often lacks the resolution needed for fine-grained analysis. While Knapp handles these limitations admirably, they remain inherent constraints on interpretation.
• Density of Information: The book packs an enormous amount of information into a relatively concise format. While thorough, this density might occasionally challenge readers less familiar with the specifics of LBA Cypriot or Ugaritic archaeology and epigraphy. The thematic organization helps, but the sheer volume of sites, texts, and artifact types discussed requires close attention.
• Interpretative Speculation: While generally cautious, some interpretations inevitably involve a degree of speculation, particularly regarding social structures, merchant identities, or the precise meaning of certain practices (e.g., the significance of specific tomb types or anchor forms). Knapp usually flags these moments, but they are part of navigating ambiguous evidence. For instance, the idea of a shared mercantile 'family' remains an intriguing but ultimately hypothetical construct based on indirect evidence.

These are minor points, however, and largely reflect the challenges of the subject matter rather than flaws in the author's approach. Knapp is commendably transparent about the limitations and complexities involved.

Final Thoughts

"Cyprus and Ugarit: Connecting Material and Mercantile Worlds" is an indispensable contribution to the study of the Late Bronze Age eastern Mediterranean. A. Bernard Knapp provides a masterful synthesis that weaves together archaeological finds and textual narratives to illuminate the dynamic and enduring relationship between these two major players. The book successfully highlights not only the shared material culture and intense commercial exchanges but also the distinct social and economic trajectories of Ugarit and Cyprus, demonstrating how their interaction profoundly shaped the latter.

Knapp’s engagement with theoretical concepts of trade, agency, and identity, combined with his meticulous handling of the evidence (and its limitations), makes this work particularly valuable. It moves beyond simple descriptions of contact to explore the social lives of objects, the strategies of merchants, and the formation of interconnected elite networks.

While academic in tone and densely packed with information, the book is clearly written and logically structured. It will be essential reading for specialists in Cypriot and Levantine archaeology, Late Bronze Age trade and interaction, and maritime history. It also offers valuable insights for anyone interested in the broader dynamics of ancient economies, cultural contact, and the rise and fall of interconnected societies in the ancient world. This work undoubtedly sets a new benchmark for understanding the crucial Cypro-Ugaritic nexus and will stimulate further research for years to come.