The Evolution of Cypriot burials over time

Death and burial practices are an essential aspect of human culture, and are a lens through which we can better try to understand the beliefs, values, and social structures of ancient Cypriots.

The mortuary practices of Bronze Age Cyprus underwent significant transformations that reflect broader changes in society, economy, and culture during this pivotal period. As Cyprus transitioned from the Chalcolithic to the Early-Middle Bronze Age and then to the Late Bronze Age, burial customs evolved from simple inhumations within settlements to elaborate chamber tombs in extramural cemeteries, and finally to a mix of chamber tombs and shaft graves in both extramural and intramural locations. These shifts in mortuary ritual coincided with major developments including the adoption of plow agriculture, expansion of copper production and trade, increasing social stratification, and urbanization [1].

The developments seen in the Bronze Age see continued use throughout the Iron Age to the classical period. In this article we will give a brief overview of the mortuary practices in Cyprus from the Neolithic to the Classical period.

Figure 1: Skull of Ancient Cypriot in a recreation of a Bronze Age Cypriot Tomb at the Cyprus Museum, Nicosia

Neolithic & Chalcolithic

Figure 2: Chalcolithic Cypriot Human Remains in Flexed Position

In the Aceramic Neolithic, burials were primarily simple inhumations within settlements. At Khirokitia, the dead were buried beneath house floors or in spaces between buildings, this type of burial is referred to as intramural, as opposed to extramural. Bodies were placed in a flexed position, often on their side. Grave goods were rare but occasionally included stone bowls, bone tools, or shell ornaments. Some burials contained red ochre, possibly sprinkled over the body.

In the Ceramic Neolithic, similar practices continued. At Sotira-Teppes, burials were found in abandoned houses or open areas within the settlement. Bodies were still flexed, but grave goods became more common and varied, including pottery vessels, stone tools, and jewelry made of picrolite.

Figure 3: Chalcolithic Tomb Recreation at the Cyprus Museum, Nicosia

During the Early and Middle Chalcolithic, burials remained within settlements but became more formalized. At Erimi-Pamboula and Souskiou-Vathyrkakas, pit graves were dug into abandoned buildings or open spaces. Bodies were typically flexed and placed on their side. Grave goods increased, including ceramic vessels, stone tools, and copper objects.

A significant development in the Middle Chalcolithic was the appearance of extramural cemeteries, as seen at Souskiou-Vathyrkakas. Here, rock-cut chamber tombs contained multiple burials, suggesting their use as family tombs over time. Bodies were disarticulated and moved aside to make room for new interments. Grave goods in these tombs were abundant, including picrolite figurines and ornaments.

In the Late Chalcolithic, both intramural and extramural burials continued. At Kissonerga-Mosphilia, pit graves within the settlement contained single flexed inhumations, while some infants were buried in ceramic vessels. Grave goods were limited, usually comprising a few ceramic vessels or stone tools.

Early-Middle Bronze Age

Figure 4: Early Bronze Age Cypriot Tomb recreation at the Cyprus Museum, Nicosia

The Early-Middle Bronze Age saw major changes in mortuary practices. Extramural cemeteries of rock-cut chamber tombs became the norm across Cyprus. These tombs typically had a dromos (entrance passage) leading to one or more roughly circular chambers.

The shift to extramural cemeteries in the Early Cypriot period likely reflected changing concepts of land tenure and inheritance associated with the adoption of plow agriculture. As settlements expanded and agricultural lands became more permanently cultivated, formal burial grounds may have served to mark territorial claims and reinforce inheritance rights. The increasing elaboration of tomb architecture and grave goods over the Early to Middle Cypriot periods suggests mortuary ritual became an arena for status competition.

At sites like Vounous and Lapithos, chamber tombs contained multiple burials accumulated over time. Earlier interments were often pushed aside or collected to make room for new burials. Bodies were usually placed in a flexed position, either on their side or seated upright against the chamber wall. Some tombs show evidence of secondary burial practices, where bones were deliberately rearranged or certain skeletal elements (particularly skulls) were given special treatment.

Figure 5: Main Chamber of Middle Bronze Age rock-cut tomb with a side chamber.

Grave goods in these tombs were abundant and diverse. Ceramic vessels were ubiquitous, often numbering in the dozens per tomb. These included both utilitarian and specialized ritual forms, such as composite vessels and zoomorphic askoi. Metal objects, particularly of copper/bronze, became common and included weapons (daggers, spearheads), tools, and ornaments. Stone objects, faience beads, and occasionally gold items were also present.

Some tombs contained evidence of feasting or offerings, including animal bones and specialized ceramic forms like kernoi. Ceramic models depicting scenes of daily life or ritual activities were another distinctive feature of this period's burial customs.

Considerable variation in tomb size and wealth of grave goods suggests the emergence of social hierarchies. However, the most elaborate tombs often contained multiple burials, indicating that status was likely tied to kinship groups rather than individuals.

Late Bronze Age

The transition to the Late Bronze Age saw both continuity and change in mortuary practices. Extramural cemeteries of rock-cut chamber tombs remained the primary burial type, but their location and use changed in urban centers.

In emerging urban sites like Enkomi, tombs were often located within the settlement, beneath houses or in streets and open areas. This "privatization" of burial space may reflect changing social structures in these heterogeneous urban communities. Chamber tombs continued to be used for multiple burials, but there was an increasing tendency towards extended rather than flexed body positions.

The placement of tombs within settlements at urban centers like Enkomi represented a major departure from earlier traditions. This "privatization" of burial spaces likely reflected the more heterogeneous social makeup of these new towns, where diverse groups from different regions settled. Placing ancestral tombs near houses and workshops emphasized specific household or kin group claims to productive resources and spaces within the urban landscape.

The construction of ashlar-built chamber tombs and tholoi at some sites shows clear foreign influences, particularly from the Levant. These monumental tomb types may have been adopted by emergent elites seeking to align themselves with the prestige and power of Near Eastern royal ideologies.

Figure 6: Late Bronze Age Tomb with Two Burial Levels, the oldest at the bottom.

Grave goods in Late Bronze Age tombs reflect Cyprus's increasing involvement in international trade networks. While local pottery remained common, imported Mycenaean and Levantine ceramics became prestigious items. Metal objects, particularly of bronze, increased in quantity and diversity. Gold jewelry became more common, especially in wealthy tombs. Other luxury items included ivory, faience, and glass objects.

The variability in tomb wealth became more pronounced, with some tombs containing extraordinary quantities of precious objects. For example, Tomb 93 at Enkomi yielded over 800 grams of gold jewelry. This suggests a more stratified society with an established elite class. The increased deposition of imported luxury goods like gold jewelry, faience, and ivory objects in Late Bronze Age elite tombs reflects Cyprus' growing participation in long-distance trade networks. The symbolic value of these exotic items helped legitimize the elevated status of urban elites. However, their restricted distribution indicates increasing social inequality compared to the more widespread access to prestige goods like copper weapons.

New tomb types also appeared. At Enkomi, several built tombs were constructed using ashlar masonry, resembling contemporary tombs in Syria. A small number of tholos tombs, possibly inspired by Mycenaean examples, were also built. Towards the end of the Late Bronze Age, there was an increase in the use of pit graves for individual burials, particularly at urban sites. This may reflect changing social structures or religious beliefs, possibly influenced by contact with the Aegean world.

Early Iron Age: Cypro-Geometric

The transition to the Iron Age saw significant changes in mortuary practices, likely reflecting the social upheavals of this period. There was a general return to the use of extramural cemeteries, as seen at sites like Palaepaphos-Skales [2].

Chamber tombs remained in use, but new types appeared. At Salamis, large dromos-and-chamber tombs were cut into bedrock, some with multiple chambers. These tombs often contained rich assemblages of grave goods, including both local and imported items.

Figure 7: Entryway level to Cypro-Geometric tomb holding the remains of an attendant.

A major innovation was the introduction of cremation, although inhumation remained the dominant practice. At Palaepaphos-Skales, cremated remains were placed in bronze cauldrons or ceramic urns, which were then deposited in chamber tombs alongside inhumations [2].

Grave goods in this period show a mix of continuity and change. Ceramic vessels remained common, with Greek Geometric pottery becoming prestigious imports. Metal objects were abundant, with iron gradually replacing bronze for weapons and tools. Personal ornaments of gold, silver, and bronze were common in wealthy tombs.

Figure 8: Main Chamber of Cypro-Geometric Tomb, holding large quantities of Cypro-Geometric wares and human remains.

Some burials of this period provide evidence for elaborate funerary rituals. At Salamis, several tombs contained the remains of chariots and sacrificed horses, suggesting complex ceremonies for elite individuals.

Figure 9: Main Chamber of Cypro-Geometric Tomb, human skull.

Late Iron Age: Cypro-Archaic and Cypro-Classical

In the Late Iron Age, also known as the Cypro-Archaic and Cypro-Classical periods, mortuary practices show increasing diversity and external influences.

Chamber tombs remained in use, but their form evolved. At sites like Amathus, multi-chambered tombs became common, often with long dromoi and elaborate architectural features like columns or benches cut from the bedrock. These tombs were typically used for multiple burials over extended periods.

Cremation became more common, particularly in the Cypro-Archaic period, although it never fully replaced inhumation. At Salamis, some wealthy tombs contained both cremations and inhumations. Cremated remains were often placed in elaborate urns, sometimes of bronze or precious metals.

Figure 10: 5th Century B.C. rock-cut tomb in square burial chamber.

Grave goods in this period reflect Cyprus's position at the crossroads of Mediterranean trade. Greek pottery was abundant, including both fine wares and transport amphora. Egyptian and Levantine imports were also common. Locally produced items included terracotta figurines and limestone sculpture, some of which show clear Greek influence. Jewelry remained an important category of grave goods, with gold items being particularly abundant in wealthy tombs. Scarabs and scaraboids, both imported and locally made, were popular items. Weapons became less common as grave goods, possibly reflecting changing ideologies about the afterlife or social status.

In Figures 10 and 11 a 5th century B.C. rock-cut tomb can be seen, this is a recreation from the Cyprus Museum in Nicosia. The tomb consisting of a stepped passage-way and a square burial chamber. The body of the deceased was placed in a separate part and enclosed with stone slabs. The offerings include local pottery as well as improted attic vases from Athens.

Figure 11: 5th Century B.C. rock-cut tomb in square burial chamber, human remains.

Some Late Iron Age burials provide evidence for complex funerary rituals. At Salamis, the "Royal Tombs" contained the remains of elaborate wooden furniture, textiles, and other organic materials preserved by the collapse of the tomb roofs. These tombs also yielded evidence for animal sacrifices and funerary feasts.

Mortuary Practices in Ancient Cyprus

The burial practices of ancient Cyprus provide insight into the lives, beliefs, and social structures of the island's past inhabitants. The treatment of the deceased, tomb designs, and grave goods offer information about ancient Cypriot society.

Cypriot burial customs evolved from simple Neolithic inhumations to more elaborate built tombs in later periods, reflecting the society's increasing complexity and wider cultural interactions. The shift from collective burials in the Early and Middle Bronze Age to individual interments in the Iron Age indicates changing perspectives on communal and personal identity.

The objects buried with the dead, such as ceramic vessels, figurines, copper tools, weapons, imports, and ornaments, reveal what ancient Cypriots valued and believed important for the afterlife. These grave goods provide information about their aspirations, status symbols, and aesthetic preferences.

Additionally, Cypriot burial practices suggest concerns about memory and continuity. The careful arrangement of bodies, evidence of funerary feasts and offerings, and the use of family tombs indicate the importance placed on maintaining connections between the living and the dead. These practices highlight the significance of kinship and shared humanity in ancient Cypriot society.