The Swedish Cyprus Expedition and its Enduring Legacy

The early 20th century marked a turning point for the archaeology of Cyprus. While the island's rich past had attracted attention for decades, much of the earlier work was driven by acquisition rather than systematic investigation, leading to countless antiquities filling museum storerooms with little or no context recorded. Against this backdrop, the Swedish Cyprus Expedition (SCE), operating between 1927 and 1931, stands out as a landmark endeavor. In just four intensive years, a team of Swedish archaeologists, led by Einar Gjerstad, systematically investigated some 25 sites across the island, primarily in the north. Their work spanned Cyprus's long history, from the Neolithic to the Roman period. The SCE represented the first major effort to excavate Cyprus scientifically, prioritizing archaeological knowledge over private gain. The finds, numbering around 18,000, were divided, with approximately 65% going to Sweden, forming the core of the Cyprus Collections now housed in the Medelhavsmuseet (Museum of Mediterranean and Near Eastern Antiquities) in Stockholm. This article explores some of the SCE's key discoveries and reflects on their enduring legacy, both in terms of archaeological understanding and the ongoing challenges of preservation and presentation.

Lapithos-Vrysi tou Barba: Unearthing a Bronze Age Necropolis

The expedition began its work in September 1927 at Lapithos (modern Lapta), uncovering a vast Bronze Age necropolis known as Vrysi tou Barba. This burial ground served the community during the Early and Middle Cypriot periods (ca. 2400-1700 BC). The Swedes excavated 23 rock-cut tombs [1], typically featuring an entrance passage (dromos) leading to one or more cave-like burial chambers, sealed with large stone slabs.

These tombs belonged to the wealthy families of Lapithos and yielded abundant grave goods. Pottery was plentiful, mostly Red Polished ware characteristic of the period. Shapes often suggested derivation from gourds, a common Mediterranean plant. Some larger vessels featured relief bands resembling snakes, possibly intended as protectors of the deceased. Certain gourd-shaped jugs indicated similarities with Anatolian pottery, hinting at external influences or connections. This aligns with the broader "Philia culture," noted for its dark burnished pottery and spouted vessels, which shows affinities with Early Bronze Age Anatolia and may represent the arrival of Anatolian migrants.

Metal objects were also numerous, reflecting Cyprus's burgeoning copper industry. Finds included tools, toggle pins, tweezers, rings, and notably, large swords and daggers, often cast in red arsenic copper or, later, bronze. The shift to alloying copper with tin to make harder bronze began around 1700 BC, though tin had to be imported. Lead isotope analyses suggest that much of the copper used was of local Cypriot origin.

For decades after the excavation, the Vrysi tou Barba site lay neglected, even used as a rubbish dump, with no visible traces of the important tombs found there. Recent efforts, spurred by the knowledge that the site attracts visitors interested in the SCE's work, led to a clean-up, though much more could be done to present this significant location to the public. A reconstruction of a Lapithos family tomb, complete with skeletons, Red Polished pottery, and bronze items, was a popular feature in a past Stockholm exhibition, offering visitors a glimpse into Early Cypriot burial practices.

Enkomi: A Cosmopolitan Bronze Age Town and Interpretative Debates

Enkomi, near modern Tuzla, was a major urban center in Late Bronze Age Cyprus, covering a large area enclosed by impressive walls dating to the late 13th century BC. While the SCE did not locate the main settlement, they excavated a section of its necropolis that had escaped earlier, less scientific digging. The tombs predominantly dated to the Late Cypriot II period (1450-1200 BC).

A significant portion of the finds consisted of Mycenaean pottery, particularly large Pictorial Style vases (Mycenaean IIIB Ware, ca. 1300-1250 BC) decorated with human and animal scenes. These were likely imported from the Greek mainland, and many bore incised signs in the Cypro-Minoan script on their handles or bases.

The prominent Mycenaean finds at Enkomi, unearthed both by the SCE and earlier excavators, became entangled in modern political and nationalist narratives. Some interpretations, influenced by colonialist or nationalist viewpoints, overemphasized the Mycenaean elements to support claims of an essential "Greekness" for Cyprus, suggesting Mycenaean migrants brought civilization, language, and technological development to the island. However, critical scholarship now challenges this view, arguing that the phenomenon was "neither Mycenaean nor colonization" but a more complex process of interaction, adaptation, and hybridization.

Despite its archaeological importance and the controversies surrounding its interpretation, the site of Enkomi today suffers from neglect. It lacks adequate signage, preservation, and visitor management, with excavation trenches eroding and structures overgrown. Tombs are left decaying without information. This contrasts sharply with its significance as a key Late Bronze Age urban center.

Nitovikla: A Fortress on the Karpas Peninsula

On the Karpas peninsula, near Kuruova/Korovia, the SCE excavated the Nitovikla fortress in 1929. This rectangular defensive structure, surrounded by massive walls and towers, featured a central courtyard onto which rooms opened. Its flat roofs likely served as platforms for soldiers. The fortress is thought to have been built in Late Cypriot IB (ca. 1550-1450 BC) and rebuilt in Late Cypriot IIA (ca. 1450-1375 BC), possibly to defend against sea raids.

Architecturally, Nitovikla evokes comparisons with Hittite fortresses in Anatolia. Its potential construction date in the 16th century BC makes it an important site in discussions about the emergence of monumental fortified settlements in Cyprus, challenging views that such structures only appeared later, towards the end of the 13th century BC. A restudy of the SCE's plans, drawings, and pottery sherds from Nitovikla was crucial in refining the understanding and dating of this significant structure.

Agia Irini: A Rural Sanctuary Filled with Votives

Perhaps the most spectacular discovery of the Swedish Cyprus Expedition was the rural sanctuary at Agia Irini (modern Akdeniz), unearthed in 1929-30. Built over a Late Cypriot Bronze Age site, the sanctuary flourished in the Cypro-Geometric and Cypro-Archaic periods, particularly between 650-500 BC.

The excavators found an astonishing assemblage of approximately 2000 terracotta sculptures, many still standing in situ arranged in semicircles around a central altar. This provided a unique snapshot of cult practices in an Archaic temenos (sacred precinct). The majority of the figures were male, but the finds also included models of war chariots with horses, riders, figures engaged in ring dances, bulls, and intriguing composite figures combining human and bull features ("minotaurs"). This votive assemblage suggests the worship of a divinity associated with fertility, cattle, and war, characteristic of rural Cypriot religion.

The site itself, located on an open field near the sea where the village priest Papa Prokopius had first noticed the statuettes, shows no visible remains today. The terracottas, however, formed the centerpiece of the Cyprus exhibition in Stockholm for many years, displayed in a large showcase designed to evoke the blue sky of the open-air sanctuary. Sadly, one of the most unique life-sized figures, the so-called "Priest," suffered severe damage due to condensation build-up during a temporary exhibition rearrangement in 1977, a stark reminder of the fragility of such artifacts and the critical importance of proper environmental controls.

Vouni: A Palace with Coastal Views

Perched atop a hill 270 meters above sea level on the northwest coast, overlooking the sea and ancient Soloi, lies the fortified "palace" of Vouni. Excavated by the SCE in 1928 and 1929, this impressive building complex was in use for just over a century, from about 500 to 380 BC. Likely a royal summer residence linked to Soloi, the palace shows a blend of Cypriot and Greek architectural elements across two main building phases.

The first palace was arranged around a central court accessed via a grand seven-step staircase, with state apartments located off the southwest entrance. The second phase saw expansion, a shift in the main entrance to the northwest, and the addition of an upper story. Lacking natural springs, the palace relied on a large cistern in the courtyard fed by rainwater from the roofs. Remarkably, the complex included amenities like latrines and a sophisticated hot bath system, possibly a sauna (sudatorium), with heat rising through hollow walls from a heating chamber below.

Finds included numerous limestone statuettes, primarily of young women. The palace met a violent end around 380 BC, likely due to conflict. Evidence of a hasty abandonment includes a treasure hoard hidden in a vase under a staircase, containing gold and silver jewelry (including bracelets with animal-head terminals in Persian style), silver bowls, and coins.

Today, the Vouni site is relatively well-preserved compared to others excavated by the SCE, with some signage indicating room functions. However, it still requires better maintenance, particularly the removal of vegetation that threatens the stonework in areas like the ancient wine cellar.

The Legacy: Research, Exhibition, and Preservation Challenges

The work of the Swedish Cyprus Expedition did not end in 1931. The collected materials – artifacts, excavation diaries, plans, drawings, and photographs – have formed an invaluable archive for subsequent generations of scholars. The Cyprus Collections in Stockholm have been studied extensively, focusing on pottery typologies, sculptural analysis, metal objects (especially the rich Lapithos finds), and terracotta production techniques. Studies have tackled broader questions about social hierarchy development based on tomb construction and grave goods, the beginnings of iron metallurgy in Cyprus through analysis of SCE finds, and the provenance of copper through lead isotope analysis.

However, the journey from excavation to exhibition is fraught with challenges, primarily concerning the long-term conservation of artifacts. Archaeological objects, especially ceramics and metals recovered from the Mediterranean soil, are vulnerable to environmental instability. Ceramics often contain soluble salts that crystallize and dissolve with fluctuating relative humidity (RH), causing surface flaking and disintegration. This necessitates careful climate control (ideally stable RH between 45-55%) and, if damage occurs, complex desalination processes. Metal objects, particularly copper alloys, are susceptible to "bronze disease," a destructive chloride corrosion exacerbated by high humidity (above 30-35% RH for metals).

The damage to the Agia Irini priest in Stockholm serves as a cautionary tale. Serious issues were observed at the St. Barnabas Monastery Museum in Cyprus, including visible salt efflorescence on pottery and active bronze disease on metal objects, attributed to high humidity and lack of climate control. Similar concerns regarding dark exhibition spaces, lack of information, and insufficient protection for objects were noted at the Güzelyurt/Morphou Museum. Even major institutions like the British Museum faced problems, such as damage to terracotta paint caused by inappropriate storage materials like hygroscopic foam rubber.

Presenting this heritage effectively also requires effort. Exhibitions in Stockholm have attempted innovative approaches, such as the reconstruction of the Lapithos tomb and an installation recreating the atmosphere of a rural sanctuary like Agia Irini, complete with appropriate plants and replica architectural elements. These efforts aim to make the ancient world accessible and engaging for diverse audiences. Central to responsible collection care and display are monitoring tools like hygrothermographs and hygrometers, and climate-buffering materials like silica gel, requiring consistent attention and maintenance.

Conclusion

The Swedish Cyprus Expedition remains a pivotal moment in the history of Cypriot archaeology. Its systematic approach laid crucial groundwork for future research, and the vast collections it generated continue to provide insights into the island's multifaceted past. From the rich Bronze Age tombs of Lapithos to the bustling workshops of Enkomi, the defiant fortress of Nitovikla, the evocative sanctuary of Agia Irini, and the commanding palace of Vouni, the SCE uncovered sites of immense significance.

Yet, the expedition's legacy is complex. It includes not only the invaluable archaeological data but also the profound responsibility of caring for the recovered artifacts. The challenges of conservation, exacerbated by unstable climates and sometimes insufficient resources or expertise, are ongoing. Furthermore, as highlighted in the source document, the interpretation and presentation of this heritage can become entangled with modern politics and divisions, hindering both research and preservation efforts. Ensuring that the legacy of the SCE, and indeed all of Cyprus's archaeological heritage, remains accessible and preserved for future generations requires continued scholarly dedication, adequate resources, and a collaborative approach that transcends contemporary divides.