Beyond Sherds: Tracing Cypriot People Across the Mediterranean

The story of ancient Cyprus's connections across the Mediterranean has often been told through the ubiquitous potsherds – the distinctive pottery that travelled far and wide. While ceramics are crucial, they offer only part of the picture. A wealth of other evidence, from inscribed messages and personal seals to the remnants left by mobile artisans and soldiers, reveals a more nuanced story of Cypriot activity and presence abroad, stretching from the Late Bronze Age through the Classical period. By looking beyond the potsherds, we can trace the journeys and interactions of Cypriot people across the sea.

Whispers in Script: Cypriot Writing Overseas

The discovery of inscriptions using Cypriot scripts outside the island provides compelling evidence of Cypriot presence and literacy abroad. The Cypro-Minoan script, used during the Late Bronze Age, has been found on various objects overseas, though its exact origins and relationship to Aegean scripts remain debated. While influenced by Linear A, the Cypro-Minoan scriptworld developed distinct characteristics, particularly in its preferred writing materials (like clay balls and inscribed vessels) which differ from both Aegean and Near Eastern cuneiform traditions.

Finds at sites like Tiryns in Greece, including a locally made clay ball and jug handle inscribed in Cypro-Minoan, suggest more than just trade. The adherence of these inscriptions to Cypriot document forms (in terms of material features, format, and even specific sign sequences also found on Cyprus) indicates the presence of individuals trained within the Cypriot scriptworld and the establishment of its writing institutions locally at Tiryns.

Later, during the Iron Age, the Cypriot Syllabary flourished. Inscriptions using the Paphian variant of this syllabary, distinctive to the Paphos kingdom, have been found scattered across the Mediterranean, including Egypt, Nubia, Turkey, and potentially Sidon and Greece. These range from simple ownership marks on pottery or coins to graffiti left by mercenaries and votive dedications. The graffiti, particularly from Karnak in Egypt, suggest a relatively high level of literacy among Cypriot soldiers, who meticulously marked their presence, sometimes indicating their specific city or region of origin. The use of the local Paphian script abroad underscores its role in expressing identity for Paphians away from home. Similarly, inscriptions on imported Attic pottery found at Marion, written in the common syllabary, often record full or abbreviated names, likely indicating ownership and the high value placed on these imported vessels.

Seals of Identity: Cypriot Glyptic Abroad

Cylinder seals, used for both amuletic and administrative purposes, offer another intimate glimpse into the lives of individuals and their connections. A seal identified as Cypriot found overseas could belong to a Cypriot individual active there, or it might have been acquired by a non-Cypriot who valued its aesthetic or symbolic properties. The picture is further complicated by the common practice of recarving seals, which happened both on and off the island, sometimes transforming Near Eastern seals into distinctly Cypriot objects.

Cypriot Cylinder Seal from the Ashmolean (accession number AN1940.229)

Defining a "Cypriot" seal involves considering materials (local stones like picrolite or copper sulphide, but also imported stones worked on the island ), carving styles (ranging from schematic "Common" styles to intricate "Elaborate" styles ), and iconography. Recarving and the production of interpretive copies were common practices within Cyprus, suggesting local workshops and adaptation of designs over time.

Significant caches of seals with Cypriot connections have been found, notably at Thebes in Greece and Ugarit in Syria. The Thebes hoard, primarily lapis lazuli seals (a material rare on Cyprus and often recarved from Near Eastern originals ), raises questions about where the recarving occurred. While Porada identified Cypriot workmanship, parallels on Cyprus itself are few, leading some to doubt a direct Cypriot link for all pieces. Ugarit, however, presents stronger evidence for interaction. Here, seals in Cypriot styles, including the popular "woman, griffin, and tree" motif, are found across the site, sometimes showing signs of local recarving. Furthermore, seal impressions linked to Cypriot "Elaborate" styles appear on Akkadian administrative documents from merchant houses connected to the harbour, suggesting Cypriots (or individuals using Cypriot-style seals) were involved in local Ugaritic affairs and commerce. The presence of a label marked with Cypro-Minoan script and sealed with a distinctively Cypriot-style seal in another archive further strengthens this connection.

Figurines on the Move: Votives and Cultural Exchange

Small limestone and terracotta figurines, common votives in Cypriot sanctuaries, also travelled across the Mediterranean. Limestone statuettes of Cypriot type, depicting worshippers, musicians, or Egyptianising figures, appear in significant numbers in Eastern Aegean sanctuaries (like Samos, Lindos, Knidos) and Naukratis in Egypt during the Archaic period (late 7th to mid-6th century BC). While many follow Cypriot prototypes, others display a mixed Cypro-Aegean or Cypro-Ionian style, incorporating Greek elements like the nude kouros type.

The origin of these mixed-style figurines has been debated, with suggestions ranging from products of Greek craftsmen influenced by Cyprus, to works by itinerant Cypriot artisans adapting to local tastes. Scientific analyses of the limestone have shown that while most statuettes found in the Aegean (Samos, Lindos, Knidos) were made from Cypriot limestone, particularly from the Pachna Formation, some examples from the Apollo sanctuary at Emecik (Knidia) were carved from local Cnidian limestone. This confirms the existence of Aegean workshops producing Cypriot-style votives, alongside the importation of finished products and possibly raw materials from Cyprus.

A small number of these statuettes found in the Aegean and Naukratis bear inscriptions. Most are brief dedications in Greek (usually Doric in the SE Aegean, Ionic at Naukratis), giving the dedicator's name, sometimes mentioning the deity (e.g., Dioskouroi, Aphrodite) or the reason for dedication. The fact that a statuette provenanced to Cyprus bears a Greek inscription confirms that the inscription reflects the dedicator's identity, not the object's origin. The simple, repetitive formulas suggest inscriptions were often added locally by sanctuary scribes. Exceptions, like a Phoenician inscription on a Cypriot limestone sphinx from Rhodes, highlight the multicultural environment of these sanctuaries. Terracotta figurines of Cypriot style also circulated, particularly in the Aegean.

Soldiers Without Borders: Cypriot Mercenaries Abroad

The mobility of soldiers offers another lens through which to view Cypriot connections. While evidence for Cypriot mercenaries in the Archaic period is scant compared to that for Ionians and Carians, the Arad ostraca mentioning "Kittim" (likely people from Kition or Cyprus) receiving rations in Judah provide possible late 7th-century evidence.

The Classical period, particularly the 4th century BC, offers clearer testimony. Numerous graffiti, mostly in the Cypriot syllabary, left by Cypriot soldiers were found on temples at Abydos and Karnak in Egypt. These signatures often include names, patronymics, and ethnics (e.g., Salaminian, Paphian, Lapithian, Ledrian) or even more specific "demotics" referring to villages or districts, suggesting contingents were organized based on origin. The strong presence of Salaminians might relate to the alliance between King Evagoras I of Salamis and the Egyptian Pharaoh Akoris against Persia. The manipulation of Evagoras' gold coinage also points to the significant costs of hiring mercenaries during the Cypriot War. Conversely, foreign mercenaries appear increasingly in Cyprus during the 4th century BC, associated with the island kingdoms' conflicts and later, more systematically, with Ptolemaic military administration. Epitaphs from Amathus and Kition attest to soldiers from various regions serving on the island.

Beyond Pottery: A Wider Mediterranean Network

Looking beyond ceramics enriches our understanding of Cyprus's place in the ancient Mediterranean. Inscriptions reveal literacy and identity maintenance among Cypriots abroad. Seals track complex interactions involving trade, personal identity, and the adaptation of artistic styles. Figurines highlight the flow of religious ideas, artistic tastes, and potentially craftsmen themselves between Cyprus, the Aegean, and Egypt. Mercenaries embody a specific, often state-sponsored, form of mobility, reflecting political alliances and conflicts across the region. Together, these diverse strands of evidence demonstrate that Cypriots were not just passive recipients or exporters of goods but active participants in the dynamic, interconnected world of the ancient Mediterranean.